Published by SPESFEED cc, P O Box 48, Rivonia, 2128. Tel: (011) 803-2050, Fax: (011) 803-8201

General News

This is the most difficult time of the year for animal producers. Extremes in temperature always tend to make life little trickier at this time of year. The good news is that commodity prices have softened to a fair degree. In this issue of SPESFEED NEWS we have included a report back on the AFMA Forum held at Sun City and a few other articles on more specific interest.

We have recently signed a contract with Richard Keenan SA who manufacturer mixer wagons for use in the dairy industry. The provision of a high degree of independent technical support as a part of the Keenan systems approach. This is what we strive for as a company and we will therefore be supplying this support to their clients in certain parts of the country. Shaun was in the UK and Ireland in early July undergoing specialist training in the formulation of TMR diets. His report is included in this newsletter.

Last year we imported 60 copies of Steve Leeson’s book entitled "Commercial Poultry Nutrition". This book has rapidly become the industry standard and we sold all 60 copies. Steve kindly agreed to bring another 20 copies with him when he came to South Africa last month. The saving in freight cost has compensated for the week Rand and we still have some copies available at R 340.00 excluding VAT. Please let us know if you would like a copy.

We have had a number of requests to run a course on ingredient selection and feed formulation techniques in the animal feed industry. We have decided to put together a one-day course covering this topic. It will be aimed specifically at those people who are involved in trading feed ingredients. The topics that we intend to cover are as follows:

As with all of our courses there will be a complete set of notes covering all aspects of the course. The first course will be held on 22 September.

The Dairy Nutrition Course will be run from 15 to 17 September. If you are interested in attending one of these courses please contact us for more details.

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AFMA Forum

During May we attended the AFMA Forum held at Sun City. The event was superbly organised and in general the quality of the papers presented was high. A number of people have asked me to summarise what I saw as the key technical issues that were discussed at the congress. I will attempt to do so here but should anyone want more information the proceedings are available from AFMA in Rivonia. Shaun has summarised Dr Lourens Erasmus paper on practical formulation of dairy diets using amino acids and this will be carried in the next newsletter.

The first technical session revolved around feed additives. Dr Peisker from ADM discussing the importance using the correct ideal protein profiles for different classes of animal. He also presented data showing that Tryptosine supplied Tryptophan to both pigs and poultry as efficiently as DL Tryptophan but at a considerable cost saving.

Dr Bedford from Finnfeeds showed how the energy level of maize can vary, and how adding enzymes to the diet can reduce the effects of this energy variation. Enzyme addition was demonstrated to have a potential improvement of 2.5 to 5% of the ileal digestibility of maize based diets. This has enabled to energy level of the diet to be dropped by 3 to 5% and still achieve the same performance in broiler chickens.

Dr Bruce Johnson of Zinpro focused on the importance of mineral nutrition in the high-stress production environment that occurs in pig and poultry production. He demonstrated that Zinc intake effectively ceases when inorganic Zinc sources exceed 100 ppm, and that the only effective way of increasing mineral intakes above a certain point was to make use of organic minerals. These may take a number of forms and have now accurately been classified into 5 different categories ranging from metal amino acid complexes to metal proteinates. Research has shown that the use of these organic minerals can improve animal performance over and above the use of simple organic minerals. It is important to remember that a certain minimum level of inorganic material must first be supplied.

Dr Charles Horn of Irene gave a good overview of the mechanisms of and role of prebiotics and probiotics in animal feeds. Some bacteria and yeasts have proven positive effects attributed to their effects on gastrointestinal tract health. Supplements consisting of these various strains of organism are known as probiotics. There are several modes of action including antibiotic production, competitive exclusion and interaction with the immune system. The introduction of non-digestible feed components that selectively stimulate the growth and activity of beneficial gut flora are known as prebiotics. Probiotics and prebiotics are not an alternative to antibiotic treatment of acute diseases but they do improve feed conversion under certain circumstances and can be used against enteritis.

Dr Tony Drake of NuTec, South Africa presented a paper on recent developments in pig nutrition. He covered the feeding of young pigs and believes that there will be a continual and general move to earlier weaning if the management and feeding systems can be put in place to meet the needs of the sensitive early gut. He discussed growing pigs with specific reference to computer growth models. The impact of growth modelling has not yet been fully felt in South Africa. Lastly he believes that feeding the delicate modern sow will continue to provide the pig producer and nutritionist a challenge, particularly with regard to embryonic mortality and longevity in sows.

Dr Fanus Cilliers of Camelus Voere in Oudtshoorn presented a paper packed with the latest information on ostrich nutrition.

His paper discussed the energy contents of various feed ingredients used in ostrich feeds, the energy requirements of the birds as well as the amino acid digestibility and requirements of these birds. He also discussed the potential use of pastures and silage for ostriches.

Dr Steve Leeson of the University of Guelph explained how the ever decreasing age at sexual maturity demanded diets higher in energy and amino acids than previously although the feeding schedule is likely to be as important as feed specifications. Smaller mature body size has also impacted on layer nutrition, mostly with regards eggs size. This can be manipulated to a certain degree by feeding additional protein and amino acids. A response is often only evident if energy intake is also limiting.

Dr Colin Fisher of Ross breeders covered recent developments in broiler breeder nutrition. He discussed the control of bodyweight and the reproductive function at some length and showed how overfeeding either before or after sexual maturity induces ovarian abnormality. Methods for calculating amino acid requirements were also discussed. The fact that it is estimated that Breeder diets need to contain 100 mg/kg of Vitamin E in order to maintain sufficient levels in the yolk was of interest.

Prof Rob Gous discussed strategies related to the nutrition of broilers that producers could use to assist in reducing the heat load of birds so as to overcome the effects of heat stress. These include the use of high density diets by adding fat and amino acids to the diet and improving the amino acid profile so as to minimise the energy cost of excreting surplus nitrogen. Simple practical methods such as the use of pelleted feed and the withdrawal of feed prior to the onset of a heat stress period were also discussed.

Egg Quality

There have been a number of unexplained problems with egg shell and egg quality in the past few months. I have hunted around for information on the subject, and have included two pieces of information here.

The pigment found in the eggshell originates in the epithelial cells lining the surface of the uterus (shell gland). Once the yolk, albumen, and their accompanying membranes reach the shell gland, the egg resides there for approximately 20 hours. During this time, the shell is deposited, mostly as calcium carbonate, onto the shell membranes that envelop the yolk and albumen. As shell formation progresses, the epithelial cells begin to synthesise and accumulate the pigments.

The brown colour of brown-shell eggs is produced by pigments formed in the liver from breakdown products of red blood cells. The three main pigments are biliverdin-IX, its zinc chelate, and protoporphyrin-IX. The most abundant pigment in today’s commercial brown-shelled eggs is protoporphyrin-IX. It is not until the final 3 to 4 hours of shell formation that the bulk of the accumulated pigment is transferred to the protein-rich, viscous fluid secretion known as the cuticle. The degree of brownness of the hen’s eggshell is dependent on the quantity of pigment directly associated with the cuticle. The pigment-rich cuticle is deposited onto the eggshell at about the same time shell deposition reaches a plateau, about 90 minutes prior to oviposition. Therefore, pigment distribution is not uniform throughout the thickness of the eggshell. Even though the eggshell contains traces of pigment, its contribution to the intensity of brown colour is negligible compared to that of the cuticle.

In any flock of hens laying brown-shelled eggs, it is common to find various degrees of pigmentation. The variation in pigmentation among brown-shelled eggs is more pronounced in broiler breeders than in commercial brown-type layers. In flocks of healthy broiler breeders, it is not uncommon to see colours ranging from dark brown to almost bleached white. This contrast in colour occurs because genetic selection for uniform brown-coloured eggs in broiler breeder flocks is of little importance compared to eggshells of commercial egg-type birds.

The first documented report of shell pigment loss in brown-shelled eggs was in 1944 when the researchers Steggerda and Hollander, while removing dirt from eggshells produced from a small flock of Rhode Island Red hens, made the surprising discovery that some of the brown pigment also rubbed off. This effect was even more evident when the eggs were rubbed vigorously. Most of the eggs gave up their pigment fairly easily except those possessing a glossy surface.

There are numerous factors that are responsible for decreasing the intensity or almost total loss of brown eggshell colour:

Stress Since the majority of the pigment is localised in the cuticle, anything that interferes with the ability of the epithelial cells in the shell gland to synthesise the cuticle will affect the intensity of eggshell pigmentation. This is especially true during the final three to four hours of shell deposition since it is during this time in the egg-laying cycle that cuticle synthesis and accumulation occur most rapidly.

Stressors in poultry flocks such as high cage density, handling, loud noises, etc., will result in the release of stress hormones, especially epinephrine.

This hormone, when released into the blood, is responsible for causing a delay in oviposition and the cessation of shell gland cuticle formation. The above stressors, which result in hen nervousness and fear, can cause pale eggshells to be produced. The paleness is often the result of amorphous calcium carbonate deposited on top of a pre-existing fully formed cuticle or of an incomplete cuticle caused by premature arrest of cuticle formation.

One of the more common stressors which cause eggshell pigment loss is fear. If a bird or any animal is scared, there is an accompanying release of epinephrine which prepares the animal for "fight or flight." In fact, the relationship between stress and the production of pale eggs by laying hens is so great that researchers have suggested that loss of shell pigment may provide a basis for a non-invasive method of assessing stress in hens.

Age of the bird As the brown egg-type bird ages, there is a corresponding decrease in eggshell pigment intensity. The exact reason for this is unknown. It is possibly due to the same quantity of pigment being dispersed over a larger surface area of shell as egg size increases with bird age or the amount of time the egg spends in the shell gland may change. It may also be due to production of less pigment.

Chemotherapeutic agents A rapid decline in shell pigmentation is common following the ingestion of certain drugs by the hen, such as sulphonamides. The coccidiostat Nicarbazin, administered to hens at a dose of 5 mg per day, can result in the production of pale eggs within 24 hours. Higher doses can lead to complete depigmentation of the eggshell cuticle.

Disease Viral diseases, such as Newcastle and infectious bronchitis, affect egg production in poultry. These viruses have a specific affinity for the mucus membranes of the respiratory and reproductive tracts. Because the virus directly infects and damages the reproductive tract, the signs of disease are manifested indirectly in the product of the tract, the egg. Thus, total egg numbers decline and eggshells become thinner and abnormally pale and have irregular contour. Internal quality is also adversely affected (watery whites). These egg production and quality problems can persist for extended periods of time.

Many eggs have excessive amounts of outer thin albumin. These eggs are particularly noticeable to consumers when being fried as the whites spread and cook before the rest of the egg is even warm. In work conducted at Guelph University, Leeson and Caston found that "spreading" eggs covered 111.8 cm² while normal eggs only covered 69.3cm². There was considerable bird-to-bird variation, but about 5% consistently produced spreading whites.

Experiments using dietary crude protein levels ranging from 14% to 20% failed to demonstrate any effects on the incidence of spreading whites. Similarly, varying the dietary acid:base balance failed to produce differences. It is clear that the incidence of runny whites is not caused by any obvious nutritional factor, at least not one of those studied thus far. Incidence in commercial practice seems to be independent of feed source.

Leeson and Caston found that individual birds tended to produce the runny eggs. Following the completion of the feeding study, ten birds with the best eggs, and ten producing eggs with the greatest surface area (the runniest) were mated to the same unrelated male, and chicks hatched from the resultant fertile eggs. When these pullets matured, their eggs were examined for albumen (and other) characteristics and it was noted that the progeny of the two groups of parents also showed differences in the extent of spread of their albumen. Progeny of the "runny" parents consistently laid eggs with runnier whites. While some of the other traits measured also differed at times, the area of the thin albumen was the only one, which was consistently affected by selection of the female parents.

It was found that the spreading of the thin white, and not the height or quantity of thick albumen, which distinguishes runny eggs from normal ones. However, there was more thin albumen in the runny eggs. The thin albumen also contained less total disulphide groups, which are important in cross-linking proteins together. More of the disulphide groups in the runny eggs were also present as oxidised sulfhydryl residues rather than disulphide bonds.

This suggests that the hens that produce runny eggs may have reduced levels of the enzymes needed to form the disulphide bonds during biosynthesis of egg albumen. These differences in the formation of adequate disulphide bonds in thin albumen may be the basis for the genetic inheritance of the runny egg trait.

It was concluded that runny eggs appear to be caused by inheritance and not nutrition. They are not an indication of the freshness of the eggs.

Shaun Storer's visit to the UK and Ireland

I was fortunate to have the opportunity to visit England, Scotland and Ireland in July, hosted by Keenan. Once I had broken the very depressing habit of multiplying the cost of everything by 10, I was able to get down to the business of enjoying myself and learning as much as possible. July is of course the best time to visit the UK because of the good (??) weather. Unfortunately, the rest of the world knows this as well!

My visit kicked off with a visit to the Royal Agricultural Show (RAS) at Stoneleigh, about an hour north of London. The RAS is similar in format to the Rand Easter Show in Johannesburg. The focus of course is on agriculture and the major attractions would be the livestock shows and competitions, the demonstration of farming equipment by a large number of companies and displays manned by suppliers of software, genetics and a variety of other services. Companies involved in the marketing of dairy products, meat and just about anything produced on British farms also had a strong presence. As a first time visitor I thought the attendance was very good, but the locals tell me that the number of people attending the Show has dropped steadily over the last few years. My first suggestion for this would be the £12 (R120.00!!) entrance fee.

There were two features about the RAS that struck me. The first was the huge variety of machinery on display. Farmers can buy a piece of machinery for nearly every job that has to be done on the farm. This is hardly surprising, however, when one remembers that there is no unskilled labour available. It occurred to me that most South African farmers would probably use up three cheque books, wear out several credit cards and cause their bank managers a great deal of distress were they to be let loose at a bonanza like this! The second significant feature was the strong emphasis on marketing.

Everyone who had a stand at the show was there with the express purpose of promoting his or her product in a very competitive market. What impressed me in particular was the aggressive marketing by distributors of dairy products and different types of meat. Their stands were professional and there were always well informed people handing out samples and educating the public about the products. One could see that they clearly understood the need to market their goods to a discerning market with a huge number of choices. I don’t recall one disinterested or half-hearted reception at any stand.

I spent three days visiting dairy farmers in Scotland with Hugh Kerr. Hugh is an independent consultant in Scotland who also does nutritional work for Keenan. He has visited South Africa and Zimbabwe on a number of occasions and does work for Keenan all over the world. I also spent 3 days in Ireland with two of the Keenan nutritionists. Dairying in Scotland and Ireland is similar to dairying in pasture growing areas such as Natal and the Eastern Cape. Herd sizes vary from about 70 cows to 300. Due to the severe winters (and only slightly less severe summers!) cows are housed for large parts of the year.

Pastures are grown during the spring and summer months. These pastures are mostly cut for bunker silage and fed in the winter. Some farmers make big bale silage but this generally not considered to be economical. A good season will normally yield three cuts of silage. The pastures are also grazed when conditions are dry enough. Most farmers would have a group of top producers being fed a TMR and a second group of lower producers on the pasture and concentrate fed in the parlour or post parlour.

Besides the obvious differences in climate there is one other extremely important difference; feed quality! It is a well-known fact that the roughages South African dairy farmers have to contend with are inferior to those grown in places like the UK and New Zealand. In case anyone doubts this let me assure you that I saw it for myself. On one particular farm I saw grass silage with the following analysis: 39 % NDF, 18.1% CP and 12.4 MJ ME. This would be equivalent to middle-of-the-range dairy concentrates sold in S.A. !! On most farms I saw rye grass pastures that have never been replaced in over 40 years. With proper concentrate feeding cows grazing them are averaging over 30 litres. Changes in the way in which we manage and grow roughage will help to improve quality slightly, but beyond that poor quality roughage is a fact of life for S.A. farmers.

Of more significance to me is the quality of feed ingredients that these farmers are using in their home-mixed concentrates. The most common ingredients used in combination with homegrown wheat and barley are high protein soya (£120/ton), maize gluten (£77/ton), wet brewers grain (£14-16/ton).

By-products from the whiskey industry are also used.

I did not come across cotton oilcake or sunflower oilcake at all even though it is freely available. It would of course be cheaper to use other ingredients but the reduction in quality is not considered to be worth it. Average productions achieved on these diets are consistently high: 30 litres or higher in the top groups and above 18 litres in the lower groups. The most important message here is that there is no point in using cheaper protein sources if it means feeding oilcakes whose digestibility is highly questionable. Cotton oilcake and sunflower oilcake are the two most obvious culprits locally. I am convinced that we need to start using more of the better quality protein sources such as soya, gluten and brewers grains even though it means higher feed prices. Using better quality ingredients will enable cows to achieve their genetic potential. I was also impressed with the overall health and condition of the cows and this is largely due to good nutrition.

Dairy farmers in the UK face many challenges, some would be familiar to local producers and others not (yet). The biggest issue at the moment is that milk prices have fallen by about 25-30% in the last six months. Prices are strongly influenced by quality (protein and butterfat) and the range I saw was from as low as 14 ppl (pence per litre) up to 18 ppl. An increase of about 2ppl is expected soon. The situation is of course complicated by the quota system. Farmers have to buy quota (20ppl or more) and they are heavily penalised if they over-produce.

The quota system is extremely difficult to understand especially when you find out that the UK and Ireland are not self-sufficient in milk and that they import milk; mostly from New Zealand. The consequence for the farmer is that when milk prices fall he does not have the option to simply increase production in order to maintain his income. He would have to buy quota, which means a big layout of borrowed capital. This in turn pushes up fixed costs. What did impress me was the fact that nearly every farmer we visited understood that the worst thing he could do was to have a fall in production. Feed prices have to be minimised but never to the extent that milk production, and therefor income, falls. Rather, their attention is focused on producing more milk from grass through good supplementary feeding and pasture management.

Producers that had followed the low input route i.e. very little, if any, concentrate, had come horribly short and were looking at starting to feed again. Typical margins over feed that I saw ranged from £1.20-2.40 per cow per day, a big variation largely due to differences in level of concentrate feeding.

Other aspects that dairy producers in the UK have to contend with are environmental and political issues. The laws governing the handling of slurry are a good example. Slurry has to be stored in expensive silos and may not flow into rivers or streams. At the moment these silos are open but they will soon have to be completely closed. The slurry has to be removed from the farm or spread on pastures.

Even effluent from silage pits has to be controlled and handled in the same way as slurry. There are also very strict laws controlling the use of insecticides. Only licensed people may handle the insecticides and a special room built to detailed specifications has to be used to store them. Inspectors that arrive on the farm unannounced enforce all of these laws.

Another interesting and alarming aspect is the growing need for farmers to fight for their right to exist. On the one hand they are being forced to accept decreasing prices for their products while processors and especially retailers make bigger margins. One of the farmers we spoke to felt that the large retailers are trying to get into a position where they can buy directly from farmers and dictate to the farmer what margin he can make. The farmer would in effect be working for the retailer as a contract producer. On the other hand farmers in the UK are facing increasing opposition from the public. The public is constantly bombarded with "green" issues that place farmers in a negative light. All of these factors have created the need for farmers to unite and to have dynamic, well-spoken representatives fighting on their behalf at all levels of society and government.

Some of these things may seem far-removed from our situation in South Africa but there are lessons to be learnt for the future. I saw something else which might be a welcome change for us in the future; the new Dalgetty feed labels. Dalgetty is the biggest animal feed manufacturer in the UK and their new labels not only show nutrient specifications (protein, Ca, P, ect) but they give the actual formulation i.e. the exact percentage of each ingredient is disclosed. I also found it very interesting that Dalgetty is a major supplier of raw materials to farmers wanting to mix their own feeds!

Finally, I had an opportunity to visit Keenans’ factory in Borris, Ireland. Keenan is by far the leading manufacturer of mixer wagons in the UK with over 75% of the market. The machines are built in their entirety at the factory in Borris with only the scales, hydraulics, axle and wheels being bought in. The emphasis on quality is impressive and the Keenan approach to feeding dairy cows has, in many ways, revolutionised the UK dairy industry. The most telling sign of their success is the extremely positive support and feedback that they get from farmers and the agricultural press. The farmers I met view Keenan as a critical and valuable partner in their businesses. I believe that they can make a positive contribution to the dairy industry in South Africa.

I would like to thank Keenan for the opportunity to travel to the UK and Ireland. I am looking forward to being a part of their growing operation in South Africa, as I believe that they will make a meaningful contribution to the dairy industry.

The pork industry - Development of large units

During April 1997 the Easter School in the Agricultural and Food Sciences was held at the University of Nottingham. B. Hardy of Omega Nutrition in the USA presented a paper on "The management of large units". The following are some of the important points highlighted in this paper.

The world’s population continues to increase at a dramatic rate. Pork is the preferred meat on a world basis and there are huge opportunities to provide differentiated pork products to this widely divergent market. Pork production is changing from a commodity industry to one with differentiated products. This necessitates a change in strategy from "produce and then sell" to knowledge of attributes that consumers demand in food products and then the creation of those attributes through control of the total pork production chain.

The traditional method of pig production was to have "farrow to finish" units under one ownership. The new industrialised pig operations often separate ownership, operating unit and geographical location for each stage of production. This networking approach allows the integrator to invest funds in only part of the total fixed assets required to produce pork, but still have a high degree of control over other phases of the pork chain through ownership of the pig.

Knowledge and information have become increasingly important resources. Many of the new integrated companies operate with highly skilled technical staff and frequently conduct their own research to produce proprietary information, which is a source of strategic competitive advantage. Rapid adoption of this technology over large volumes of pigs can increase control, reduce risk and at the same time increase profit potential. Marketing is the key to making these new business structures work, as marketing people can identify trends. The ability to move quickly and make changes to satisfy the market place will be essential for businesses to be successful in future.

The United States is beginning to realise its world-wide competitive advantage in the production of high quality pork products due to the following factors:

The 10 largest US farms control 17% of the breeding herd and are shown in the table on the next page.

The overall goal of the large integrated unit is to maintain a consistent volume and quality of market pigs being delivered to the food-processing plant, while controlling cost of production.

Structure of large units:

Economies of scale are fundamental to establishing optimum size of the total system. The objective is to develop a low cost production system that can deliver high volumes of added value pork products. The size of the individual pig units within the total system will be determined mainly by the number of animals managed per person and by the optimum breeding unit size.

The system needs to operate on a time basis and all performance aspects need to be accomplished within a given time frame.

MIS support is essential to produce accurate data in a timely manner and allow for prompt action to correct any deviation from physical or financial targets.

Pork chain concept:

The pork chain concept starts with customer needs and identifies all the links in the total system from consumer back to genetics. The success of the concept is in the understanding and management of each segment, but with the ultimate goal of total linkage.

The greatest challenge is in controlling the all the controllable variables and managing the business within the limits of the non-controllable variables. The variables are shown in the figure below:

Consumers – There is a wide diversity of attributes required in pork products around the world. In some countries there has been a drive toward healthier eating. By attending to this quality attribute the NPPC marketing campaign for "the other white meat" has had a tremendous impact in the USA.

Marketing – All part of the pig need to be marketed and the range of customers now extends from humans to pet food manufacturers and animal by-product users.

Processing – Standard Operating Procedures for animal handling on the unit are key features needed to ensure minimal losses during transport, reduction in condemned carcasses and reduction in stress which can impact on pork quality.

Environment – There are four areas under environmental control i.e. pig housing, effluent, odour and water quality.

Management - The most critical factor in managing the farm is people. Use of management by objectives (MBO) helps to focus on issues of importance and a good working relationship between the different segments of the pork chain. This ensures that more attention is given to both quantity and quality aspects of pigs as they are moved through the system.

All managers need to understand the effect of a one unit change in the different key pig performance parameters based on unit cost sensitivity and its effect on profit. The effect of volume on these large units makes a relatively small change in performance have a huge impact on total profits as can be seen from the table on the following page.

Nutrition: Diet specification and feeding programs can only be designed when specific information is available. It is vital to have knowledge of the change in daily feed intake and daily gain, for both sexes from the time of weaning up to slaughter. Knowledge of the genetic potential for lean tissue deposition and actual feed intake curve is necessary within the limitation of the commercial farm environment. This allows for adjustments to be made to the diet specifications and allocated amounts of each type of diet, to optimise the most cost-effective daily gain and feed conversion.

Health – Maintenance of high health status is probably the most difficult function within large units and the health assurance programme needs to be continually updated based on the health status of each farm facility.

Genetics – The genetic material required by the large pig unit is now last on the list of considerations, as it is not possible to decide on the best genetic program until all other consideration in the pork chain are established based on the attributes required in the marketable pork products by the consumer. The consumer and genetic links therefore appear next to each other in the pork chain.

Fish Meal

We have written about fishmeal in previous newsletters. Our concerns about quality have not diminished. Recently we have had fish meal form the Seychelles and found it to be below standard. Pig farmers who have used it have had depressed performance. Please do not be tempted to by the "cheap" material.

The price of tested fish meal has increased to more than R 5600.00 (for October delivery), so the inclusion of fish meal in most of our diets may well become a distant memory.